壞

Phono-semantic compound:

土 (“earth, soil”) – semantic, indicating crumbling earth or structural ruin

褱 (“to cherish, to carry in the bosom”) – phonetic element, here lending the sound huài/gwae

Originally referred to the collapse of earthen structures or walls, later extended metaphorically to anything ruined, spoiled, or morally corrupt.

Semantic range:

- to collapse, to fall down, to be destroyed;

- to spoil, to decay, to rot, to go bad;

- to ruin, to corrupt, to break (physically or morally);

- colloquial: “bad, broken, spoiled.”

In Modern Korean, 壞 is usually seen in compounds like 파괴 (“destruction”) or 손괴 (“damage”), while in Modern Chinese it is also a common colloquial adjective meaning simply “bad/broken.”

파괴 (破壞) – destruction, to destroy

손괴 (損壞) – damage, defacement, injury to property

부패·부괴 (腐壞) – corruption, decay, putrefaction

괴산 (壞産) – ruined estate, destroyed property (archaic/literary)